2016年7月17日 星期日

Urinary Tract Infections【泌尿道感染】

又到了 Infection 中第二大科的章節 - Urinary Tract Infections (UTI)



 General Principles

 Definitions
- UTI is a bacterial infection that  affects parts of the urinary tract.
     Classification

    Anatomic [解剖學] - 細菌是尿道口往上進入逆尿系統,故我們也由下往上看!!

    ► lower: urethritis, prostatitis, cystitis (superficial infection of  bladder)
        
    ▪ Urethritis [尿道炎]: often sexually-transmitted
     Cystitis [膀胱炎]: traditional UTI
    ▪ Prostatitis [前列腺炎]: in men (廢話 XD)

     upper; pyelonephritis [腎盂腎炎]

    Clinical
      uncomplicated [無併發症]: in healthy women, w/o (without) underlying disease
      complicated [合併併發症]: in women, any UTI men or pregnant women with underlying disease

       Clinical manifestations

      Cystitisdysuria [解尿疼痛], urgency [急尿], frequency [頻尿], burning sensation [解尿灼熱感], hematuria [血尿], 改變尿液的顏色和氣味, suprapubic [恥骨部]疼痛; 一般不會發燒
      Urethritis: 除了有尿道分泌物外,其餘症狀與 cystitis 一樣. cystitis 和 urethritis 都應排除 viginitis [陰道炎]的症狀
      Prostatitis:
      chronic: 除了有排尿困難 (hesitancy [解尿遲疑], weak stream [尿流慢])外,其餘其餘症狀與 cystitis 一樣
      acute: perineal [會陰部]疼痛, fever, 有 tenderness [壓痛]的 prostate [攝護腺]
      Pyelonephritisfever, chills [畏寒], flank [腹側] or back pain, 噁心, 嘔吐, 腹瀉
      Renal abscess
         Diagnostic studies
          ► Urinalysis [尿液檢查]pyuria [膿尿] + bacteriuria [菌尿症] ± hematuria ± nitrites
             
          我們總是在書上看到 UTI 會有以上這4種現象,但卻沒告訴我們其臨床意義,那就趁現在好好了解一下吧~
          Urine Routine;Urinalysis [尿液常規]
          WBC [白血球]: 尿中的白血球通常以嗜中性球為主,淋巴球次之,而是酸性性最少。
          → 輔助診斷各種腎臟疾病
          → 尿液中出現過多的嗜中性球 (高倍視野下超過5顆):又稱為 pyuria, 表示泌尿道出現感染或發炎。

          Bacteria [細菌]: 正常情形下,尿液中不該出現細菌,當尿中發現有細菌時,表示有 UTI 可能,但須排除不正確收集尿液方式所造成的外陰部細菌汙染。
          → 輔助診斷 UTI
          → 尿液中發現有細菌: 表示有 bacteriuria

          Occult Blood [潛血]: 當有大量血尿、血紅素尿或肌紅蛋白尿時,尿液通常呈現紅色或棕色,此時可用尿液潛血試驗來鑑別其他造成紅棕色尿液的原因。
          → 篩檢 hematuria [血尿]、hemoglobinuria [血紅素尿]、myoglobinuria [肌紅蛋白]
          → hematuria: 指尿中出現紅血球

          RBC [紅血球]: 正常情況下,尿中 RBC 在高倍視野下不超過2顆。

          Nitrite [亞硝酸鹽]: 許多細菌,泌尿道感染時,例如 Escherichia coli [大腸桿菌], Klebsiella [克雷白氏菌], Enterobacter [腸桿菌], Proteus [變形桿菌], Staphylococcus [葡萄球菌], Pseudomonasa [假單孢菌]可將尿液中的 nitrate [硝酸鹽]代謝成 nitrite [亞硝酸鹽], 當尿中細菌大於 10^5/mL 時, nitrite 大量產生便會呈現陽性反應。
          → 診斷 UTI 的間接方法
          → Nitrite (+): UTI
          Enterococcus, Neisseria gonorrheaMycobacterium tuberculosis 不會將 nitrate 代謝成 nitrite.

          Leukocyte Esterase [白血球酯酶]: 尿液中若存在有大量嗜中性球即暗示有 UTI, 嗜中性球會釋放出 esterase, 故尿中 leukocyte esterase 增加為診斷 UTI 的間接方法。因尿液中嗜中性球並不穩定而容易分解,當顯微鏡檢尿液沉渣未發現大量白血球,而病患又有 UTI症狀時, leukocyte esterase 便可當作輔助診斷的工具。
          → 診斷 UTI 的間接方法
          → Leukocyte Esterase (+): 懷疑有 pyuria

          Urine Cx : 當有 symptoms 時才需做 cx (culture).
          → 從 clean-catch midstream [清潔排出之中段尿液] or straight-cath specimen [導尿管檢體]
          ▪ Significant bacterial counts:
             typically ≧10^5 CFU/mL in women, ≧10^3 CFU/mL in men or cathrterized [導尿] Pts.
          ▪ Pyuria & (-) UCx = sterile pyuria [無菌性膿尿症]
          → urethritis, nephritis [腎炎], renal tuberculosis [腎結核感染], foreign body [異物]

          ► Blood culture: 有 febrile Pts 才需要; 考慮有 complicated UTIs

           Microbiology

          Uncomplicated UTI: E.oli (80%), Proteus, Klebsiella, S. saprophyticus
          → 在健康的人和非懷孕婦女: lactobacilli, enterococci, Group B strep and coag-neg staph (except S. saprophyticus) 通常是汙染物

          Complicated UTI: E.coli (30%), enterococci (20%), PsA (20%), S. epi (15%), other GNR

          Catheter-associated UTI: yeast (30%), E.Coli, other GNR, enterococci, S. epi

          Urethritis: Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Ureaplasma urealyticum, Trichomonas vaginalis, Mycoplasma genitalium, HSV

           Treatment





          Referance:
          1. The Washington Manual of Medical Therapeutics 34th Edition, Pancreatobiliary Disorders.Gallstone Disease
          2. The Massachuetts General Hospital Handbook of Internal Medicine 5th Edition, Urinary Tract Infections

          2016年7月12日 星期二

          Pneumonia 【肺炎】


          說到 Infectious Diseases,就不得不提到這個經典中的經典 - Pneumonia【PNA】

          肺炎的定義:簡單來說就是肺部組織受到感染


          那是如何進到我們肺部呢?我們就要把肺炎細分為以下4大類:

          < Microbiology of Pneumonia >


          1. Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP)
          • S. pneumonia
          • Mycoplasma, Chlamydia, viral (esp. in young & healthy)
          • H. influenzae, M. catarrhalis (esp. in COPD)
          • Legionella (esp. in elder, smoker, ↓ immunity, TNF inhibitors)
          • Klebsiella & other GNR (esp. in alcoholics & aspirators)
          • S. aureus (esp. postiviral infection)
          2. Hospital-acquired pneumonia or Health care-associated pneumonia (HAP/HCAP)
          • GNR including Pseudomonas, Klebsiella, E. coli, Enterobacter, Serratia, Acinetobacter
          • S. aureus (including MRSA)
          • Acid suppression may ↑ risk of acquiring PNA - 說穿了就是 PPI, H2 blocker....
          3. Aspiration pneumonia
          • Chemical pneumonia due to aspiration of gastric contents
          • Bacterial pneumonia ≧24-72 hrs later, due to aspiration of oropharyngeal [口咽] microbes
                      - outPt: typical oral oral flora (strep [鏈球菌], S. aureus, anaerobes [厭氧菌])
                      - inPt or chronically ill: GNR and S. aureus

          4. Immunosuppressed pneumonia → 『非本章重點,可先不記』
          • Above + PCP, fungi, Nocardoa, non-TB mycobacteria, CMV, HSV
          < Clinical manifestations >
          • "Typical [典型]": acute onset of fever, cough帶濃痰, dyspnea [呼吸困難], Chest X-ray (CXR) 呈現 consolidation [實質化]
          • "Atypical [非典型]": dry cough 或陣發性刺激性咳嗽, 肺外症狀居多 (nausea and/or vomiting, diarrhea [腹瀉], myalgias [肌肉痠痛], sore throat [喉嚨痛]), 在 CXR 會呈現 patchy interstitial pattern [斑片狀間質性型態], 一般不引起肺部實變及胸腔積液
          • 病徵、症狀和影像學檢查都無法可靠地區分 "typical" (S. pneumo, H. flu) 和 "atypical" (Mycoplasma, Chlamydia, Legionella, viral) 兩者差異
          • Legionella 會使 ↑ aminotransferases & ↓ Na (50-70% 呈現低鈉血症, 尤其 < 130 mmol/L)
          Treatment

          1. Outpatient
          • No recent abx; macrolide or doxycycline
          • Recent abx or comorbidities [共病症] (eg, cardiopulm, hepatorenal, DM, EtOH); respiratory FQ or (macrolide + [high-dose amox ± clav or 2nd-gen ceph.]) 
          2. Community-acquired, inpatient
          • (3rd-gen ceph. + macrolide) or respiratory FQ
          • MRSA coverage, if necrotizing [壞死性] or with empyema [積膿] (罕見)
          3. Community-acquired, inpatient, ICU
          • (3rd-gen ceph. or amp-sulbactam) + (macrolide or FQ) (假設 no risk for Pseudomonas)
          4. Hosp-acquired & risk for MDR pathogens
          • (Antipseudomonal PCN or ceph. or carbapenem) + (FQ or [gentamicin + azithromycin]) + MRSA coverage
          5. Immunosppressed
          • As Above ± TMP-SMX ± steroids to cover PCP
          6. Aspiration
          • (3rd-gen ceph. or FQ) ± (clindamycin or metronidazole)


          Empirical Antibiotic Treatment
          Outpatients
          Previously healthy and no antibiotics in past 3 months
          l   A macrolide (clarithromycin [500 mg PO bid] or azithromycin [500 mg PO once, then 250 mg qd]) or
          l   Doxycycline (100 mg PO bid)
          Comorbidities or antibiotics in past 3 months: select an alternative from a different class
          l   A respiratory fluoroquinolone (moxifloxacin [400 mg PO qd], gemifloxacin [320 mg PO qd], levofloxacin [750 mg PO qd]) or
          l   A β-lactam (preferred: high-dose amoxicillin [1 g tid] or amoxicillin/clavulanate [2 g bid]; alternatives: ceftriaxone [12 g IV qd], cefpodoxime [200 mg PO bid], cefuroxime [500 mg PO bid]) plus a macrolidea
          In regions with a high rate ofhigh-levelpneumococcal macrolide resistance,b consider alternatives listed above for patients with comorbidities.
          Inpatients, Non-ICU
          l   A respiratory fluoroquinolone (e.g., moxifloxacin [400 mg PO or IV qd] or levofloxacin [750 mg PO or IV qd])
          l   A β-lactamc (e.g., ceftriaxone [12 g IV qd], ampicillin [12 g IV q46h], cefotaxime [12 g IV q8h], ertapenem [1 g IV qd]) plus a macrolided (e.g., oral clarithromycin or azithromycin [as listed above] or IV azithromycin [1 g once, then 500 mg qd])
          Inpatients, ICU
          l   A β-lactame (e.g., ceftriaxone [2 g IV qd], ampicillin-sulbactam [2 g IV q8h], or cefotaxime [12 g IV q8h]) plus either azithromycin or a fluoroquinolone (as listed above for inpatients, non-ICU)
          Special Concerns
          If Pseudomonas is a consideration:
          l   An antipseudomonal β-lactam (e.g., piperacillin/tazobactam [4.5 g IV q6h], cefepime [12 g IV q12h], imipenem [500 mg IV q6h], meropenem [1 g IVq8h]) plus either ciprofloxacin (400 mg IV q12h) or levofloxacin (750 mg IV qd)
          l   The above β-lactams plus an aminoglycoside (amikacin [15 mg/kg qd] or tobramycin [1.7 mg/kg qd]) plus azithromycin
          l   The above β-lactamsf plus an aminoglycoside plus an antipneumococcal fluoroquinolone
          If CA-MRSA is a consideration:
          l   Add linezolid (600 mg IV q12h) or vancomycin (15 mg/kg q12h initially, with adjusted doses)
          註: aDoxycycline (100 mg PO bid) is an alternative to the macrolide. bMICs of >16 μg/mL in 25% of isolates. cA respiratory fluoroquinolone should be used for penicillin-allergic patients. dDoxycycline (100 mg IV q12h) is an alternative to the macrolide. eFor penicillin-allergic patients, use a respiratory fluoroquinolone and aztreonam (2 g IV q8h). fFor penicillin-allergic patients, substitute aztreonam.
          Abbreviations: CA-MRSA, community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus;
          ICU, intensive care unit.

          2016年7月10日 星期日

          Gallstone Disease 【 膽結石疾病 】

          大家都知道「肝膽相照」這一成語,比喻以真心相見。


          所以說啦,一個平時膽小如鼠的人,喝了酒之後,膽子立馬就大了起來,以前不敢說的話,也敢說了,以前不敢幹的事,他敢幹了,而且變得從容決斷。為什麼會這樣呢?因為酒精進入人體之後,首先影響的是肝,肝與膽相表裡,肝又影響到膽,肝與膽發生了變化,人的謀慮和決斷自然會發生變化。

          What Are Gallstones ?

          They aren’t really stones. They're pieces of solid material that form in the gallbladder, a small organ located under the liver.
          You might not even know you have them until they block a bile duct, causing pain that you need to get treated right away.

          General Principles
          Gallstones

          1. Asymptomatic gallstones (Cholelithiasis)[無症狀膽結石]:一般是不需要特別治療。而最常見造成的原因為 cholesterol stone (膽固醇結石),但偶爾會因為 hemolysis (溶血) 或 infection 而造成 pigmented stone (色素結石)
          2. Symptomatic cholelithiasis[有症狀膽結石]當 upper abdominal 症狀被診斷與 gallstones 有關時,基本上會以手術當作治療 - cholecystecomy (膽囊切除術)。
          3. Acute cholecystitis[急性膽囊炎]最常見的原因是結石塞住 cystic duct (膽囊管),但是 acalculous cholecystitis (無結石性膽囊炎) 可能發生在重症或住院的患者身上。
          < Type >
          1. cholesterol stone[膽固醇結石]結石通常是 yellow-green in color。為最常見的原因,大約佔 80% of gallstones。
          2. pigmented stone[色素結石]結石為 smaller and darker。主要成分為 bilirubin,其來自於 bile,由肝臟製造並儲存於 gallbladder (膽囊)中。

          【Diagnosis】

          < Clinical Presentation >
          1. Cholelithiasis (膽結石)可能表現在 biliary colic (結石性絞痛) ,在右上腹部會持續數小時的疼痛,並且會延伸到背部或是右肩,有時會有表現出噁心或嘔吐的現象。
          2. 患有Acute ascending cholangitis (急性上升性膽管炎)的病人,表現是右上腹痛、發燒寒顫和 jaundice (黃疸),通常會發生在膽道阻塞時,例如:choledocholithiasis (膽管結石)、腫瘤、sclerosing cholangitis (硬化性膽管炎)、biliary stent occlusion (膽管支架阻塞)。年老者可能能沒有腹部症狀。
          3. 你可能沒有任何症狀或是從頭到尾都不知道你有膽結石直到醫師告訴你。但如果有症狀出現時,可能包含有:
          • Pain in your upper belly and upper back that can last for several hours 
          • Nausea 
          • Vomiting 
          • Other digestive problems
          < Diagnostic Testing (診斷工具) >
          1. Blood test:檢查有無感染或阻塞的現象,並 r/o 其他因素。
          2. Ultrasound scan腹部超音波使用上快速且擁有高準度的診斷 (敏感性及特異性 > 95%),為診斷首選
          3. CT scan:藉由 X-ray 偵測膽道內異常,包含 gallbladder 。
          4. Cholescintigraphy (Hydroxy iminodiacetic acid scan;HIDA scan):核子醫學膽道攝影可以用在懷疑 acute cholecystitis 時但超音波正常時使用。另外,若只有膽道顯影,但膽囊不顯影時,則表示有膽囊管阻塞。
          5. 另外還有 Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP)、Endoscopic ultrasound、Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP)...等就不贅述。

          【Treatment】

          < Medications >
          1. Supportive measures [支持性療法]:包括靜脈液體補充和使用 board-spectrum antimicrobial agents (廣效性抗生素),尤其是對於有併發症,如:acute cholecystitis with sepsis (敗血症)、穿孔、腹膜炎、abscess (膿瘍)或 empyema (膿胸)的病人。
          2. Ursodexycholic acid (Genurso®)膽結石溶解藥物8 ~ 10 mg/kg/day PO in two to four divided doses 並須要長期服用,才能將膽結石溶解。適合用在小的膽固醇結石、膽囊功能正常,和手術有高風險的病人身上。副作用包括diarrhea 和可逆性的肝指數上升。
          < Other Nonpharmacologic Therapies >
          1. Percutaneous cholecystostomy:對阻塞性黃疸病人,依膽管阻塞情況,將特製之引流管由前腹壁或右腹壁肋間置入膽管,使膽汁引流管流出體外,或流入十二指腸,這種醫療處置稱為「經皮經皮穿肝膽管引流術」。對於不適合外科手術的重症患者合併有 acute cholecystitis 是一種替代方式。

          < Surgical Management >
          1. Cholecystostomy[膽囊切除術]:是 acute cholecystitis 和 Symptomatic cholelithiasis 的治療選擇。
          2. Laparoscopic cholecystostomy[腹腔鏡膽囊切除術]:比起傳統腹腔切除術有較少的併發症、價格便宜、住院天數少和美觀等優點。

          【Complications】
          1. Acute pancreatitis[急性胰臟炎]:胰臟酵素造成胰臟胰臟本身或是胰臟周圍組織的發炎。
          2. Choledocholithiasis[膽管結石]
          3. Acute ascending cholangitis[急性上行性膽管炎]

          Take Home Message

          說真的,整篇啃完後,個人覺得對藥師比較重要的大致如下:
          1. General Principles
          2. Clinical Presentation - pain in your upper abd.、nausea、vomiting
          3. Medications


          Referance:
          1. The Washington Manual of Medical Therapeutics 34th Edition, Pancreatobiliary Disorders.Gallstone Disease
          2. 華盛頓內科學手冊 33th Edition, 腸胃道疾病.膽結石疾病
          3. WebMD, Gallstones: What You Should Know
          4. BSG (2009) Gallstones. [online] [Accessed 11 May 2013].
          5. http://gallstonesrx.weebly.com/surgical-treatment.html

          2016年7月9日 星期六

          胰島素計算-如何彈性調整餐前胰島素 [C:I ratio and ISF]

          胰島素劑量對於藥師來說可真是陌生呢,今天就好好認識一下吧!!



          一位積極胰島素治療的患者-CSII、MDI,學會醣類計算技巧可以依照所吃的醣類克數或份數,計算該餐須打的胰島素劑量。

          明白來說就是,可彈性調整餐前胰島素劑量

          首先你要先認識以下兩個比值

          【 醣類/胰島素比值 】

          • C/I ratio
          • I:C ratio
          • Insulin-to-CHO ratio (ICR)
          【 血糖/胰島素比值;校正因子;胰島素敏感係數 】

          • Correction factor (CF)
          • Insulin sensitivity factor (ISF)
          我們首先進入第一個領域-【 醣類/胰島素比值;C:I ratio 】

          重點:吃多少醣類 (CHO) 需打1單位的胰島素

          方法1:用公式估算 ----- 未做飲食紀錄

          • 450 rule:450 / TDD ----- 用於Short-Acting Insulin【Humulin Regular】
          • 500 rule:500 / TDD ----- 用於Rapid-Acting Insulin【Lispro、Aspart、Gluslisine】
          方法2:依照飲食和SMBG紀錄計算
          • 該餐醣類(CHO) / 該餐胰島素劑量
          『 Example - C:I ratio 


          Q:A man of 60 kg takes total insulin dose 30 units daily of HR and NPH, then how to  calculate the C:I ration.

          A:
          1. 從題目得知該患者未做飲食紀錄,且使用HR為短效型胰島素,故使用450 rule估算 C:I ratio
          2. 450 / TDD = 450 / 30 = 15 g ---- 吃15g 的碳水化合物需打1單位的 insulin
          3. 故如果今天吃60g 的碳水化合物則須打4 units of HR
          我們首先進入第二個領域-【 血糖值/胰島素比值;ISF】

          重點:打1單位的胰島素可以降多少血糖值

          方法:依照SMBG和公式來估算

          • 1500 rule:1500 / TDD ---- 用於Short-Acting Insulin【Humulin Regular】
          • 1800 rule:1800 / TDD ---- 用於Rapid-Acting Insulin【Lispro、Aspart、Gluslisine】
          『 Example - ISF ratio 

          Q:A man of 60 kg takes total insulin dose 30 units daily of HR and NPH, and his pre-meal BG is 200 mg/dL and their target is 100 mg/dL, then how to  calculate the ISF.


          A:

          1. 先矯正高出目標的血糖值 = 實際血糖值 - 目標血糖值 = 200 - 100 = 100 mg/dL
          2. 從題目得知該患者使用HR為短效型胰島素,故使用1500 rule 估算 ISF
          3. 1500 / TDD = 1500 / 30 = 50 mg/dL ---- 打1單位的胰島素可以降50 mg/dL血糖值
          4. 校正胰島素劑量  = 100 / 50 = 2 units
          結語:
          當兩種方法熟悉後,可以依照飲食紀錄和SMBG自行調整餐前胰島素劑量。